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Cancor Report #297: Knowledge Sharing with the DPRK

Sunday, January 27th, 2008

November 12, 2007

The latest edition of the CanKor Report has only one longer-than-usual item. It is the preparatory document of a workshop recently held in Seoul, Korea, in which NGOs, academics, practitioners and diplomats from Europe, Asia, Australia and North America consulted about the prospects for international cooperation regarding education and training programmes that need to be undertaken with the DPRK if denuclearization proceeds according to the Six-Party timetable. Experts in economic development believe that the next step in international engagement will have to be the building up of DPRK expertise and intellectual capacity to absorb the significant development assistance that may follow successful completion of the Six-Party process. In this working paper, loyal CanKor reader and former World Bank official Bradley Babson defines “knowledge sharing”, explains why the time is ripe for all sectors to become involved, outlines potential pitfalls, and suggests guiding principles for future engagement by the international community.
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Contents:

1.   KNOWLEDGE SHARING WITH THE DPRK
    Bradley O. Babson, CanKor original
       Introduction
       Why knowledge sharing?
       Strategic considerations
       DPRK internal challenges
       Nuclear politics
       Inter-Korean reconciliation
       China, Russia and Northeast Asia regional perspectives
       Operational challenges in the DPRK context
       An underlying tension
       Relationships
       Information
       Absorptive capacity
       Coordination
       Resources
       International experience and best practices
       Conclusions and principles for future engagement
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(more…)

Posted in Economic reform, Energy, Finance, Foreign direct investment, KIEP-Korea Institute for International Economic Policy, Nuclear, Political economy, Price liberalization | Comments Closed

Customs Director of Hoiryeong Arrested for Assisting in Drug Trades

Thursday, January 10th, 2008

Daily NK
Yang Jung A
1/10/2008

It was confirmed that the customs director of the city of Hoiryeong in North Hamkyung province was arrested last December for alleged corruption.

Multiple sources in Hoiryeong reported on the 8th that “The customs director of Hoiryeong was arrested at the end of last December on suspicion of assisting in the drug trade with China. It is known that a large sum of U.S. dollars was found in the customs director’s house.”

A source in North Korea reported through a phone call that, “The arrested customs director regulated small-scale merchants heavily and gave benefits to a couple of merchants who regularly gave bribes. Ultimately, the result was that access to commercial licenses in Hoiryeong was limited to the merchants who dominated the jangmadang.

Hoiryeong is one of the major crossing points along the North Korea-China border. Recently, cases of extortion in which the customs director demanded bribes in exchange for not confiscating goods were on the rise. Criticism had been rising.

The outcry from Korean-Chinese who regularly visit relatives in North Korea has been especially loud. Customs officers have required bribes from the Korean-Chinese who visit North Korea to deliver food, clothing, medicine, and daily necessities claiming them as customs fees. Such actions have become commonplace. (more…)

Posted in Black markets, Civil society, International trade, Political economy, Price liberalization | Comments Closed

‘Labour hero’ supposedly executed in NKorea

Thursday, January 3rd, 2008

Good Friends claims that a prestigious local politician has been executed for his bourgeois lifestyle…

(excerpt) A cooperative farm chief who was once honoured by North Korea’s founding president has been publicly executed for starting a private farm to support his luxurious lifestyle, a South Korean aid group said Thursday.

The unidentified man — said to be a member of the national legislature — and two colleagues were put to death by firing squad on December 5 in Pyongsong City, 30 kilometres (20 miles) north of Pyongyang, the Good Friends group quoted sources as saying.

The farm chief, his accountant and the local county’s party secretary were accused of selling produce from an unauthorised farming operation to lead a luxurious lifestyle, said a newsletter from the group which provides aid to the hardline communist state.

The farm chief was accused of failing to register 196 acres (79 hectares) of farmland that had been cultivated over the past decade. He allegedly fed retired soldiers with the produce and used them as his private bodyguards.

The man “acted like a king” in Mundok County and had been deemed untouchable because of his status and the gang of retired soldiers who followed him everywhere, Good Friends said.

All those put to death were said to have lived in upmarket two-storey homes and driven illicit cars.

Read the whole story in the AFP here
1/3/2008

Posted in Agriculture, Black markets, Civil society, Economic reform, Good Friends, Labor conditions/wages, Military, Political economy, Price liberalization, Uncategorized | Comments Closed

NK Forced to Revert to Agricultural Market System?

Tuesday, December 11th, 2007

Daily NK
Jung Kwon Ho
12/11/2007

Several sources in China have relayed that it is rumored North Korean authorities are planning to take extreme measures to prevent the sale of industrial products at the jangmadang (markets) next year.

One Chinese merchant, whom DailyNK met in Dandong, China on the 6th, said, “Rumors are circulating that a measure preventing all kinds of Industrial products from being sold in the jangmadang will be implemented next year, making Chinese merchants involved in trade between North Korea and China nervous.”

He informed that “In place of industrial products, only farm produce from the fields of homeowners will be allowed to sell in the jangmadang. Marine products that up to now have been selling in the jangmadang will only be made available at appointed marine shops, meat products at food shops, and industrial products at state operated stores.”

The Chinese source also maintained that, “There are quite a few overseas Chinese who, not knowing what will happen, have bought loads of industrial products with the idea that this might be their last chance, and they have brought them into the North.”

The North Korean authorities began unfolding a series of market regulations immediately following the Inter-Korea Summit in October. These included such policies as limiting the types of items for sale and imposing a minimum age limit on female merchants. However, limiting the sale of industrial products themselves, after having abolished permanent markets, can be seen as a means of returning to “agricultural markets,” where farmers traded only vegetables and a surplus of produce.

According to other Chinese merchants with whom DailyNK met in Dandong on the 3rd, “Under the name of the North Pyongan Party Committee in Shinuiju, a three-day meeting was held between the Secretaries of the Party and of the Army and enterprise managers, from November 20th to the 22nd.”

They informed that “The meeting was held to discuss whether to prohibit jangmadang operations and put people who have been trading in the market to work at enterprises or factories, since regular provisions will resume starting next year.”

The recent efforts to regulate the markets have been analyzed as means to revert the standard of societal regulation to that of the pre-90s by restoring the provision system and normalizing factory operations. However, such an extreme measure is likely to give rise to serious civilian opposition, so there are doubts as to whether or not it can be realized.

The North Korean civilians, before the mid-90s, relied on a complete provision system supplied by the State, which included the provision of goods such as soap, clothes and other necessities. However, after the food shortage, the national provision system completely collapsed. As a result, civilians began acquiring most necessities, goods and food items through the jangmadang.

However, agricultural markets, where miscellaneous cereals, vegetables and other agricultural items raised in home gardens were traded, existed around the time when North Korea’s provision system was in normal operation.

Following the execution of the “July 1st Economic Management Improvement Measure” of 2002, the North Korean government established general markets which brought simple agricultural markets out in the open in February 2003. Since then, individuals leasing stands from the city mercantile department have been able to sell all kinds of industrial products as well.

One source in Chongjin stated in a phone conversation on the 6th regarding the recent rumors, “If the sources are Chinese merchants, than the rumor is not likely groundless. A majority of citizens sustain their livelihoods through the jangmadang.”

He agreed that “It is highly feasible that measures to toughen the regulation of industrial products in the market will be executed.”

Posted in 2002 Economic reforms, Agriculture, Black markets, China, Civil society, Economic reform, General markets (FMR: Farmers Market), International trade, Labor conditions/wages, Light Industry, Manufacturing, Price liberalization, Private property, Public Distribiution System (PDS) | Comments Closed

North Korean Children Have to Learn Computers As Well

Friday, December 7th, 2007

Daily NK
Han Young Jin
12/7/2007

In North Korea nowadays, individual-use PCs concentrated in Pyongyang and Chongjin, Shinuiju and other large-size cities have been gradually increasing. The trend has been rapidly increasing due to the propagation of computers by North Korean party organizations, the administrative committee office and middle schools.

The computerized citizen registration project by the North Korean village office was completed around the Local People’s Assembly representative elections last July.

A source from Shinuiju, North Pyungan said in a phone conversation with DailyNK on the 5th, “Provincial organizations and the village office are taking on computer-based projects. Large-city wealthy people are also acquiring computers left and right due to their children’s education.”

The new-rich class, who have made huge profits from recent trade with China, believe gradually that “The outer society cannot do anything without computers. Our children have to learn computers, too, to not get behind.”

A majority of computers provided to North Korea are Chinese and South Korean-made and have entered through official trade with North Korea, but a portion has been going through smuggling. South Korean computers, with the exception of Korean software, are permitted. North Korea uses North Korean word processors, such as “Dangun” and “Changduk.”

A portion of the upper-class use the new model computers smuggled from China, but a majority use secondhand Pentium IV-processor or below imported from China. In North Korea’s Shinuiju, a computer (Pentium II) which includes a used CTR monitor is 100~120 dollars and a computer which includes LCD monitor is 300 dollars. The offering price for a used laptop is around 300 dollars.

He said, “People cannot connect to the internet via computers, but can use most programs set up on computers. The resident registration computerization project has been completed and in Pyongyang, networks between libraries are in operation.”

North Korea is the single country in the world that is not connected to an internet cable network. North Korea, while being endowed with the national domain suffix, “kp”, does not operate a domain. People cannot use internet, but can use software programs set up on individual computers such as MS-Word, Excel, and Photoshop.

In North Korea, after 2000, the import of used and new computers from China, Japan, and South Korea through individuals and companies increased dramatically. Around 2001, around 2,000 Samsung, LG and TriGem Computer were provided to North Korea’s main colleges such as Kim Il Sung University and Kim Chaek University of Technology.

Mr. Kim said, “Chosun (North Korea) people prefer LCD monitors, not CTR monitors. Computers that have been coming in North Korea are mostly made in China and South Korean computers such as Samsung, LG, and TriGem Computer have been widely distributed as well.”

Electronic Publications Service using Domestic Network Possible

North Korea prohibits internet, so computer education mostly focused on program usage are taught in colleges and high schools. In schools for the gifted and college computer majors nationwide, a new generation of software developers is being nurtured.

Major organizations in the area of software development are Chosun (North Korea) Computer Center (KCC), Pyongyang Program Center, and the Academy of Sciences.

Since 2002, North Korea has created a network connecting the libraries of Grand People’s Study House, Kim Il Sung University, and Kim Chaek University of Technology. The network has been expanded throughout Pyongyang and the provinces. Currently, a few high officials in Pyongyang can use reportedly the Grand People’s Study House’s electronic publications service at home.

Posted in Black markets, Civil society, Communications, Computing/IT, Economic reform, Education, General markets (FMR: Farmers Market), Internet, Intranet, Kim Chaek University of Technology, Kim Il Sung University, Korea Computer Center (KCC), Price liberalization | Comments Closed

Update on North Korea Markets and Market Regulations

Wednesday, December 5th, 2007

Daily NK
Yang Jung A
12/5/2007

After the Inter-Korean Summit held in October, the North began to place age limits for females who can do business in the market. The regime has risen the minimum age from 35 to 49 years old. Since most men are enrolled in workplaces, it is mostly women who engage themselves in business activities and are therefore being targeted by the age limit.

According to a study conducted by DailyNK on North Korean markets, business activities have slowed due to the regulation of the market. However, if a woman bribes the officers in charge of enforcing the regulations, she can continue to do business. In the rural areas, it is known that the regulations are not strictly enforced.

The complaints of the North Korean people regarding the regulations are growing ever more intense because their livelihoods depend on market activity. Below is an overview of the current market situation in the North..

◆ Market Conditions

Although detailed statistics are not available, it is reported that there are around three to four markets in each North Korean city.

In Pyongyang, the city with the largest population, there is one market for every district (19 in all). On densely populated “Tongil (unification) Road,” there are two markets. Kangdong, administratively located within Pyongyang, has three markets. Additionally, there are small-scale markets, such as the No.67 Munitions-Factory market and Hari Plaza market. The one in Kangdong is relatively large.

Shiniju, known as the center of trade between North Korea and China, has three markets: Chaeha, Namjoong and Dongseo (aka Pyonghwa). South Shiniju has only one. There are two markets for each of the larger districts in Chongjin, the second largest city after Pyongyang. Overall, each town in each county has at least one market and each county has one or two small-scale farmer’s markets.

◆ Average income

In the past, markets were always bustling with people except during the rice-planting and harvest seasons. However, since the State has begun controlling prices and enforcing an age limit on merchants, the markets have become stagnant.

Around 50 to 60 merchants used to engage in business in each block of each market in Pyongyang. Now, there are only seven or eight merchants on each block. Therefore, nowadays, shoppers are finding it hard to buy quality products in the market.

The average daily earning for merchants depends on the types of items sold. Merchants who sell agricultural products make about 3,000 won, and those who sell sea products earn between 5,000 and 6,000 won. Those who trade industrial products are reported to make as much as 10,000 won per day.

◆ Prohibited sales items

The North Korean authorities are now exercising control over the types of products that can be sold in the market and have increased the list of banned items.

The list of prohibited sales items in Hamkyung Province, centering on Hoiryeong, is as follows: electric rice cookers, electric frying pans, automobile tires and parts, diesel fuel, gasoline, beef, medicines, electric blankets, VCRs (Even home-manufactured VCRs cannot be traded in the market. They are only available at State-run shops.), rubber belts, bearings, welding rods, electric motors, electrical wirings, alcohol, foreign films, and so on.

It has been reported that market managers exercise control inside-market activities, whereas security agents patrol outside of the market. The level of regulation depends on the individuals charged with enforcing the regulations. Bribed officials do their job only perfunctorily.

◆ People’s responses to market regulation

Unlike markets in major cities such as Hoiryeong, Musan, and Chongjin in North Hamkyung Province, markets in small cities and towns of the province operate as usual regardless of the State’s market regulations.

In small cities and towns, people know each other, and market managers and safety agents do not strictly enforce the state’s regulation as their counterparts do in big cities. Even in major cities, however, many merchants under the age of 40 continue to do business. If they fail to get inside the market, they do business in alleys adjacent to the market.

Many merchants complain about the market regulations, and some even get into altercations with market managers.

For instance, they violently stand against and even swear at the mangers, saying, “You guys live in comfort because you receive food from the State and take bribes from us. However, we live from hand to mouth each day here in the market. How could you then regulate the market?”

◆ Some servicemen secretly engage in business

Some poverty-stricken soldiers and officials as well reportedly steal rice distributed to the army and sell it to merchants. Unlike commoners, servicemen are tightly watched, so they cannot readily involve themselves in money making activities.

Some destitute low ranking soldiers clandestinely take their emergency rations and sell them in the market. Canned beef manufactured at Ryongsung Meat Processing Plant is sold at 3,500 won and Canned mackerel at 2,500 won in the market.

However, heavy punishment awaits servicemen who are caught engaging in illegal market activities. So, they covertly sell military provisions to only personal aquaintences.

Posted in Economic reform, Finance, Fiscal & monetary policy, General markets (FMR: Farmers Market), Labor conditions/wages, Price liberalization | 1 Comment »

North Korea’s Hyesan Jangmadang Prohibits Sale of Medical Products

Tuesday, December 4th, 2007

Daily NK
Moon Sung Hwee
12/4/2007

An internal source conveyed on the 30th that due to an extreme decree which prohibits all sales of medical goods, the suffering of citizens has been increasing.

The source maintained that “In August, the sale of medical products was banned, and by the start of anti-socialism inspections in September, no medical products could be found in the jangmadang.”

The North Korean authorities have long since stated its position in prohibiting the sale of medical goods, saying that the sale of medical goods in the jangmadang is a show of democracy that undermines the national medical system. However, regulations usually never went beyond formalities.

Recently, however, anti-socialism inspections have been conducted on a large-scale in Yankang with the theme of “Abolishing capitalist trends in the market.” Medical products, which are mostly from China and South Korea, have been regulated more aggressively. Some have said that the authorities have strengthened regulations due to frequent incidences involving Chinese sub-standard medical products.”

With the harbinger of regulation of medical products, pharmaceutical vendors have sold medical products to their acquaintances on a limited basis. The price has increased significantly as well. Chinese-made aspirin, “Zhengtongbian”, which costs 20 North Korean won per pill, has hiked up to 30 won. A bottle of anti-diarrhea medicine has increased from 150 won to 300 won and penicillin from 120 to 200 won.

Especially the smuggling of Electrolyte Solution, used in IV’s to hydrate hospital patients, has stopped due to regulations, causing a jump in price.

From mid-August to the end of October, the anti-socialism inspections in Hyesan, Yankang were cooperatively conducted by the central Party, the Prosecutor’s Office, the National Security Agency and the People’s Safety Agency. Along with the strict regulation of cell phones, the market, and capitalist “corruption,” the medical goods ban has cast a heavy burden on the civilians.

“Good Friends” reported in October that “Thirty people have been incarcerated as a result of the anti-socialism inspections in Yankang since mid-August, and regulations have tightened.”

When the sale of medical products completely ceased in the markets, citizens and doctors who must treat their patients have been extremely disgruntled.

The source said, “People have to go to the homes of pharmacists in order to buy medicine, but they cannot if the pharmacists do not know them personally. The price has increased dramatically due to the regulations of medicinal products.”

“Even hospitals do not carry medicine and there is no way to procure them, even at doctors’ request.” Doctors have complained, saying “Are we supposed to just sit by and watch the sick people?”

A majority of medical products that could be found in the markets were Chinese-made contraband goods. In some cases, Party leaders or army hospital leaders have illegally procured medicine as well.

The source commented that when civilian discontent rose, the Party Municipal Committee explained the cause of the cease in sale of medical goods as, “In a socialist society, hospitals have guaranteed medical goods, but during this temporary time of suffering, some immoral people have hoarded the national medical supply and are making a profit.”

Posted in Black markets, Civil society, Disease prevention, Economic reform, Epidemics, Foreign direct investment, General markets (FMR: Farmers Market), Good Friends, Health care, Indigenous medicine, Pharmaceuticals, Price liberalization | Comments Closed

College Students Turn to Middlemen in Pyongyang

Monday, December 3rd, 2007

Daily NK
Yoon Il Geun
12/3/2007

An inside source told the Daily NK recently that about 20 to 30% of business agents in Pyongyang are university students.

Since the late 90s, college students started working as agents between artifacts buyers and sellers.

Pyongyang middlemen usually connect local merchants in border area and retailers in Pyongyang. Besides trading foreign goods, they also took part in artifact business around Kaesung, which was the capital of Koryo dynasty from 10th century to late 14th, and thus full of ancient artifacts.

College students lack funds, so their only way to earn money is to be agent.

The insider said “Pyongyang’s college students are the smartest and known for their business skills. Among them, students from Kim Chaek University of Technology are best. It is reasonable to assume at least two out of ten students have become working as trading agents since the March of Tribulation in 1990s.”

“Students are perceived as trustworthy because they are from middle class families. And those who are from local provinces and studying in Pyongyang have advantages.”

Most of these business-practicing students are former army veterans, especially those who are interested in earning money rather than studying. A few poor students who have not enlisted do business.

According to the source, these students rarely attend classes and bribe school college administrators in order to graduate. During “farming supporting period” every spring and autumn (every college student is mandatory to work at farms twice a year), business-students are exempt while buying food for those who participate.

A defector from Pyongyang said “There is little to learn at universities and society is changed to capitalist, so there is no shame for doing business among college students. The other reason might be influx of army veterans into colleges.”

Posted in Antiques, Education, Foreign direct investment, Illicit activities, Price liberalization | Comments Closed

Widespread embezzlement among party officials

Monday, December 3rd, 2007

Daily NK
Jung Kwon Ho
12/3/2007

The North Korean authorities are intensifying efforts to crack down corruption and embezzlement prevalent among party cadres.

Lim Sang Il (pseudonym, 43), a native of Pyongyang, said, “The state excommunicated and dismissed both the chief secretary of the Party in the Daedonggang district and the head of the foreign currency-making activity organization. They were found to have embezzled money earned from cocoon business for the past ten years.” Mr. Lim, currently staying in Dangdong, China visiting relatives, said, “Words are circulating around that they extorted over 10 million dollars.”

Mr. Lim said, “The factory manager of the Sangwon Cement Complex located near Pyongyang took his life when he heard the news that he was suspected of corruption and the state inspection group against anti-socialist trends was about to come down to see him for inspection.”

“This manager was notorious for corruption. For years, he had extorted money from the factory and used it for his own use,” Mr. Lim said. “It was widely gossiped that this man killed himself because he knew that his would receive capital punishment considering the severity of his corruption.”

A source from Sinuiju in North Pyongan said in a phone conversation with DailyNK on the 28th of November, “The chief secretary of the local Party in Woonjeon, North Pyongan Province, was expulsed from the party and fired from his job after he was found to have extorted money allocated for public construction works.”

“There are constructions going on in Woonjeon, tearing down old houses and building new ones,” the source said, “However, no one has ever asked people’s permission for constructions in the first place and provided temporary housing for people until the completion of construction works, and that, of course, angered many people.”

“All of a sudden, those without money ended up being homeless whereas those with money became able to purchase two to three houses at affordable price,” said the source.

“Expressing their anger aggregated over time, the local people led by the old directly sent a written protest to the central Party and filed a complaint,” the source said. “After all, the inspection group had to come down to Woonjeun and dismissed the chief secretary of the local Party and head prosecutor.”

“The inspection group discovered that these men were hiding a significant amount of money in their houses,” the source said. “It was so much that the inspectors couldn’t count the money and had to weigh stacks of bills in the scales.”

“Conspiring with the construction manager, the chief secretary accumulated money by overpricing construction materials and selling newly constructed houses,” said the source. “The head prosecutor accepted huge bribe on condition that he should turn down pouring complaints and contesting reports from the locals.”

In regard to the recent incident where some machinery from the Suncheon Vinylon Complex was smuggled to China, the state has dismissed many high-ranking officials implicated in the smuggling such as the chief secretary of South Pyongan Province, the chief secretary of the local Party in Suncheon, the city’s public prosecutor, and director of safety agency and foreign-currency making organization of the city.

Posted in Banking, Black markets, Finance, Price liberalization | Comments Closed

Pyongyang Citizens, “Life Has Gotten Tougher Since the Inter-Korean Summit”

Wednesday, November 28th, 2007

Daily NK
Kwon Jeong Hyun
11/28/2007

A source inside North Korea reported on the 26th of November that the country’s food distribution system did not operate properly and the regime strengthened its control over the market in the Pyongyang areas in the second half of November.

“Most residents of Pyongyang’s core districts such as Joong and Botongang district received their food rations. However, only a half of those who live in Moonsu-dong, Chungryu-dong and Soryong-dong of the Daedonggang district received their rations,” the source said.

“An announcement was displayed on a board in front of the Soryong- 2- dong distribution office in the Daedongdang district, stating, ‘Rice to be redistributed as soon as enough rice is secured,’” the source said. The source added that the crop distributed to the people was composed of 80 percent Annam rice and 20 percent corn, and many people complained about its poor quality.

The North’s food distribution system has worked out well in the west Pyongyang area such as Joongu, Botongang and Pyungcheon district. However, the regime has intermittently distributed food rations to residents in the east Pyongyang area such as Daedongang, Dongdaewon, and Sungyo district.

For instance, in August, no food was distributed in the east Pyongyang area. In September, only a half of residents in the area received food rations. In the following month, all received their food. In November, not all received their rations as in September.

When there is no food distribution, people have to procure rice by themselves in the market.

Unfortunately, that is not an easy task. Since the North Korean authorities have fixed the price of rice at 700 won/kg in the markets of Pyongyang, many merchants are not willing to bring out rice for sales. Instead, they clandestinely sell rice at 1,300 won/kg only to individuals with whom they are acquainted.

The price of rice went up to a high of 1,800 won/kg in the mid October, but now remains steady at 1,300 won/kg. As long as the regime tries to control the price of rice, few merchants would sell rice in the open market, thus contributing to a hike in prices.

In the mid November, corn was sold at 500 won/kg, pork at 3,000 won/kg, an egg at 200 won each, Chinese cabbage at 500 won/kg, and domestic cabbage at 300won/kg in the markets of Pyongyang. The rice of cabbage has rapidly dropped as the state released cabbage into the market because November is a season of preparing Kimchi for winter. Domestic cabbage was sold cheap due to its poor quality.

The regime continues to control the markets in Pyongyang. It prohibits all females under 48 years old from doing business in the market. In addition, merchants are not allowed to sell more than 15 items. The regime enforces its market regulatory measures by having organized groups of inspectors composed of young people and ordered them to regularly patrol markets.

The source said, “As the food situation is getting worse and the state is intensifying its control over the market, Pyongyang citizens begin to express a sense of disappointment with South Korean President Roh.” The source said, “After the inter-Korean summit meeting, many fostered the hope that President Roh would help solve food shortage problems and the regime would adopt reform policies. However, that did not happen. As the state tightens its control over the market, life has gotten tougher.”

“Some even went to so say that President Roh should not have come to the North,” said the source, echoing the uneasy sentiments among Pyongyang citizens.

Posted in Agriculture, General markets (FMR: Farmers Market), Price liberalization, Public Distribiution System (PDS) | Comments Closed

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